Kidney disease has become a global public health problem affecting over 750 million people worldwide and imposing a heavy economic burden on patients. The complex architecture of the human kidney makes it very difficult to study the pathophysiology of renal diseases

in vitro

and to develop effective therapeutic options for patients. Even though cell lines and animal models have enriched our understanding

they fail to recapitulate key aspects of human kidney development and renal disease at cellular and functional levels. Organoids can be derived from either pluripotent stem cells or adult stem cells by strictly regulating key signalling pathways. Today

these self-differentiated organoids represent a promising technology to further understand the human kidney

one of the most complex organs

in an unprecedented way. The newly established protocols improved by organ-on-chip and coculture with immune cells will push kidney organoids towards the next generation. Herein

we focus on recent achievements in the application of kidney organoids in disease modelling

nephrotoxic testing

precision medicine

biobanking

and regenerative therapy

followed by discussions of novel strategies to improve their utility for biomedical research. The applications we discuss may help to provide new ideas in clinical fields.